Recreation Conflict - Stress Theory In this study, coping behaviors in recreation are understood using the
transaction model of stress. Within the transactional model, coping behaviors
can be viewed as the result of on-going transactions among personal and
environmental factors, perceptions of threat or stress, and the perceived
effectiveness of coping strategies. The current study focuses specifically on
the relationship between reported levels of stress and the types of coping
strategies used by recreationists in Glacier National Park. Higher stress
levels were more strongly related to direct action aimed at changing
environmental conditions (such as talking to someone) or absolute displacement
behaviors, while the lower stress levels were associated with cognitive coping
mechanisms. Moderate stress levels were more related to substitution
behaviors. These results have intuitive appeal, as direct action was used when
the perceived threat increased to the point where the options of changing
one's own behavior, or understandings, were no longer seen as adequate
responses. The transactional stress model emphasizes that recreational
conflict is product of an on-going transaction between the person, the
environment and the results of coping. Recreational settings, therefore, are
constantly changing not only as a result of management decision and natural
processes, but also due to social processes. Coping behaviors can help recreationists maintain satisfaction with their activity, but may also change
the recreational setting. These reactions set the stage for further
transactive relationships and stress relationships. Schuster, R. and W. E. Hammitt. 2000. "Effective coping strategies in
stressful outdoor recreation situations: Conflict on the Ocoee River." USDA
Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P 15(4): 167-174. This study surveyed private boaters (mostly kayakers) on the Ocoee River
and their experience with conflict on the river. Seventy-two percent of
boaters had experienced some conflict. In this study, the stress-response
model conceptualized by Lazarus and Folkman was tested for significance.
Despite the relatively high level of conflict the stress-response model could
be not be supported. Like other conflict studies, this study found no
significant relationship between the conflict or stress situation and the
response. Conflict did not necessarily result in decreased satisfaction
levels. Given the high levels of previous experience with boating on the Ocoee
River, one possible explanation is that boaters had come to expect conflict (a
social norm) and had found ways to cope with the conflict and not let it
affect their satisfaction with their experience. Schneider, I. and W. Hammitt. 1995. "Visitor response to outdoor recreation
conflict: A conceptual approach." Leisure Sciences 17(3): 223-234. This paper suggests outdoor recreation conflict involves two primary
dimensions: 1) a visitor's perception of conflict and 2) a visitor's response
to conflict. Recreation conflict literature has focused primarily on the first
dimension and almost exclusively on the "goal interference" model of conflict.
Two lesser known models that also focus on why conflict occur include a
spatial model of conflict and model of incompatibilities between recreation
types based on environmental dominance and use of technology. Recreation
conflict research has been insightful on revealing factors which lead to
recreation conflict, but it has dealt very little with the second dimension of
visitor response to conflict. This paper presents a conceptual framework based
upon response to stressful situations to help explain the visitor-response
dimension. The model, adapted from Lazarus and Folkman's (1984)
stress-response model suggests personal and situational factors influence a
series of appraisal processes that lead to a response to conflict. Moreover
this model suggests that conflict in recreation should be viewed as a process,
where a situation is first evaluated as conflict and followed by a response
that affects a visitor's experience.
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Miller, T. and S. McCool. 2003. "Coping with
stress in outdoor recreational settings: An application of transactional stress
theory." Leisure Sciences 25(2-3): 257-275.